Battlefield Doctrine of the Heer
(part 1 of 2)
General:
Success on the battlefield lies in the offensive; while it is often necessary to resort to the defensive victory can only be won by defeating the enemy force by combination of arms and successful application of the military art.
Combat operations must be a
Bewegungskrieg, that is, a war of manoeuvre. Only by tactical and operational manoeuvre can the dangers of positional warfare be avoided.
Auftragstaktik, that is mission-type controls, require that the military commander gives subordinate leaders a clearly defined goal, the forces needed to accomplish that goal and a time frame within which the goal must be reached. The subordinate leaders then implement the order independently. The subordinate leader is given, to a large extent, the planning initiative and a freedom in execution which allows a high-degree of flexibility at the operational and tactical levels of command. For the success of
Auftragstaktik, it is especially important that the subordinate leaders understand the intent of the orders and are given proper guidance, and that they are trained so they can act independently. The success of the doctrine rests upon the recipient of orders understanding the intent of the issuer and acting to achieve the goal even if their actions violate other guidance or orders they have received.
All operations must be directed against the
Schwerpunkt, that is the focal point, of the enemy. By concentrating all available forces upon the centre of gravity of the opponent, a decisive breakthrough can be achieve that can be exploited by follow-on forces. Once a breakthrough has been achieved pursuit must be carried out in the most aggressive manner to maintain the tempo of the attack.
Offensive Operations:
The objective of the combined arms in attack is to bring the armoured forces and the infantry into decisive action against the enemy with sufficient fire power and shock. Superiority in force and fire power, the employment of armoured forces, as well as the element of surprise are the keys of a successful combined-arms offensive action.
Flankenangriff or flank attack is considered to be the most effective form attack. The flank attack develops either from the approach march - sometimes through a turning movement - or from flank marches. It attempts to surprise the enemy and permit him no time for countermeasures. Since mobility and the deception of the enemy at other positions are required, the flank attack is most successfully mounted from a distance; the troop movements necessary for the manoeuvre can be executed in close proximity to the enemy only with unusually favourable terrain or at night. Attacks are to be launched on both flanks only when the attacking forces are forces clearly superior in numbers and firepower.
iUmfassungsangriff or envelopment is a combination flank-and-frontal attack. It may be directed on either or both the flanks of the enemy, and is accompanied by a simultaneous frontal attack to fix the opponent. The deeper the envelopment goes into the flanks, the greater the danger of being enveloped oneself. It is therefore necessary to maintain strong reserves and organization of the enveloping forces in depth.
Einkreisung or encirclement, while particularly decisive, is more difficult to execute than a flank attack or envelopment. It requires extreme mobility and deception on the part of the attacking units.
Frontalangriff or frontal attack, must be made only at a point where the infantry can break through to favourable terrain in the depth of the enemy position. It strikes the enemy at his strongest point, and therefore requires superiority in all arms. The frontage of the attack must be wider that the actual area chosen for penetration, in order to tie down the enemy on the flanks of the breakthrough. Adequate reserves must be held ready to counter the employment of the reserves of the enemy force. An attack directed at one or both wings of the enemy (
Flugelangriff) has a better chance of success than a central frontal attack, since only a part of the force is faced, and only one flank of the attacking force or forces is exposed to enemy fire. Bending back one wing may give an opportunity for a flank attack, or for a single or double envelopment.
Durchbruch, that is, breakthrough, is the exploitation of a successful attack on the front, wing or flank of the enemy. The penetration destroys the continuity of the hostile front. The broader the penetration, the deeper can the penetration wedge be driven. Strong reserves throw back enemy counterattacks against the flanks of the penetration. Units must be trained to exploit a penetration to the maximum so that it may develop into a complete breakthrough before hostile countermeasures can be launched on an effective scale. The deeper the attacker penetrates, the more effectively can he envelop and frustrate the attempts of the enemy to close his front again by withdrawal to the rear.
Preparation of the Attack: Reconnaissance
Operative Aufklarung, that is, operational reconnaissance, is intended to penetrate over a large area in great depth, providing the basis for strategic planning and action. This type of reconnaissance is intended to determine the location and activities of enemy forces, particularly localities of rail concentrations, forward or rearward displacements of personnel, loading or unloading areas of army elements, the construction of field or permanent fortifications, and hostile air force concentrations. This mission is carried out by tactical air force elements and by motorized elements within their scope. Motorized units employed for operational reconnaissance have only directions and objectives assigned.
Taktische Aufklarung, that is, tactical reconnaissance, is carried out in the area behind the operational reconnaissance, providing the basis for the commitment of troops. Its mission embraces identification of the organization, disposition, strength, and antiaircraft defences of the enemy; determination of his reinforcement capabilities; and terrain reconnaissance of advance sectors. Both tactical air elements and motorized reconnaissance elements are employed for tactical reconnaissance; their direction and radius of employment are based upon the results of the operational reconnaissance. Air reconnaissance units are assigned specific reconnaissance areas, the boundaries of which normally do not coincide with sectors assigned to ground units. Reconnaissance aircraft generally are employed singly.
Sectors of responsibility are assigned to ground tactical reconnaissance units. In order to make them independent or to facilitate their change of direction, units may be assigned only reconnaissance objectives. In such instances, boundary lines separate adjacent units. The width of a sector is determined by the situation, the type and strength of the reconnaissance battalion, the road net, and the terrain. In general, the width of a sector assigned to a motorized reconnaissance unit does not exceed 50 kilometres.
Gefechtsaufklarung, that is, battle reconnaissance, is begun with the opposing forces begin to deploy. All troops participating in battle carry out battle reconnaissance through patrols, artillery observation posts, observation battalions, and air reconnaissance units. The information obtained on the organization and strength of the enemy provides the basis for the conduct of the battle. The observation battalion locates enemy artillery and heavy weapons positions by sound and flash ranging and evaluated aerial photographs. The tactical air force elements assist in battle reconnaissance by observing the distribution of the enemy's forces, his artillery, bivouac and movements, reserves, tank assemblies, and any other special occurrences behind the front.
Gefechtsspahtruppen or combat patrols are employed in the immediate battle zone to test the strength of enemy outposts. If an outpost proves to be weakly held, the patrol attacks, occupies the position, and remains there until relieved by troops from the rear. If the outpost is strongly garrisoned, the patrol attempts to return with a prisoner of war.
Preparation of the Attack: Organization
The
Angriffsbefehl, or attack order, contains the objective of the attack, the disposition of the unit sectors and boundaries, disposition and support missions of the artillery, location of reserves, and the time of attack. The order addresses:
(1) Estimate of the situation (disposition of hostile and friendly troops)
(2) Mission
(3) Assembly areas for the forward companies; objective; sector boundaries; orders for the continuation of combat reconnaissance
(4) Instructions for the preparation of the heavy-weapons fire support, especially for massed fire
(5) Orders to the artillery for fire preparation and coordination
(6) Assembly areas for the reserves
(7) Time of attack
(
Instructions for rear services (medial service and supplies) and
(9) Location of command posts
The width of a sector assigned to a unit in the attack depends on the unit's mission and battle strength, on terrain conditions, on the available fire support of all arms, and on the probable strength of enemy resistance. Normally the sector assigned to a platoon is between 150 and 200 meters; a company attack sector is about 300 to 500 meters; a battalion sector is about 500 to 1,000 meters, and the divisional sector may be between 4,000 and 5,000 meters. These sectors also provide the boundaries of the other arms, especially for the artillery in support of infantry. For large units the sectors are determined from the map; for smaller units, from the terrain. These sectors extend as deep into enemy territory as the plan of battle may require. As the situation develops, changes are frequently made. Important points always lie within units' sectors, unless they are to be attacked by several units.
Fire superiority is achieved through coordination of the infantry and artillery weapons. The basis of the fire plan is the regulation of the commitment of all weapons. The fire plan includes the following:
(1) Assignment of combat missions
(2) Distribution of observation sectors and fields of fire for the infantry and the artillery
(3) An estimate of capabilities of the artillery for effective execution of the combat mission
(4) Orders for the commencement of fire and fire schedules
(5) Orders for the preparation for massed fire
(6) Instructions for ammunition supply
The Attack: Prepared Attacks
Attacks are to be made as a fully coordinated effort of all arms. Against an enemy in prepared positions with adequate antitank defences, the initial attack will be made by infantry troops with the immediate support of assault artillery. Armoured troops will follow to exploit the penetration made by the infantry. Against an enemy caught in open country without adequate antitank defences the armoured troops will make the initial attack, advancing by bounds until penetration is achieved and pursuit may begin.
Artillery support is of decisive importance for the preparation and the successful conduct of an attack. A unified command for the entire artillery controls the artillery fire as long as the infantry and tank units are fighting on the same line. When the tanks break through the enemy forward defence lines, the self-propelled artillery or any other artillery battalion designated for the support of the tank unit is placed under the command of the tank unit commander.
The mission of the artillery preparation before the attack is to destroy, or at least neutralize, the opponent's antitank defence in the area between the line of contact and the regimental reserve line. Continuous counterbattery fire prevents the enemy from shelling the tank assembly area and from breaking up the preparation of the tank attack.
The artillery has the following missions
before the attack:
(1) Counterbattery fire on enemy artillery located in positions which command the ground over which the attack is to be made
(2) Concentrations on enemy tanks in assembly areas
(3) Harassing fire on all areas in which the antitank units are located or suspected
(4) Adjusting fire with high explosives on probable enemy observation posts commanding the sector to be attacked
The artillery has the following missions
during the attack:
(1) Counterbattery fire
(2) Blinding enemy observation posts
(3) Engage successive lines of antitank defence as the attack progresses
(4) Screening the flanks of the attack with smoke
(5) Delaying the movement and deployment of enemy reserves, particularly tanks
This wide variety of tasks must not lead to the wholesale dispersal of effort. The main task of the artillery is at all times the destruction of the enemy's antitank weapons, tanks, and artillery.
Infantry attacks on prepared positions is made in the same sequence, that is, penetration, breakthrough and exploitation by the reserves. In the infantry attack, the first phase is a series of local attacks by
Stosstruppen (assault troops) with the aim of overcoming key points in enemy defences. Assault detachments are to be composed of infantry with pioneers attached.
Assault artillery vehicles advance with the infantry, to neutralize enemy support weapons at close ranges over open sights. They are to be employed in a concentrated fashion, in conformity with the
Schwerpunktprinzip (principle of concentration).
The Attack: Meeting Engagements
In the
Begegnungsgefecht or meeting engagement, the advantage lies with the side which succeeds first in making effective preparation for the attack and thereby deprives the enemy of his freedom of action. When both adversaries attack immediately from march columns, the decisive factors are the initiative of the junior officers and the efficiency of the troops. The senior commander quickly coordinates the functions of the various officers, while the advance guard secures for him freedom of action and the opportunity for a speedy deployment of his troops.
The Attack: Pursuit
Pursuit begins when the enemy is no longer able to maintain his position and abandons the combat area with the bulk of his forces. The object of the pursuit is the complete annihilation of the retreating or routed enemy. Effective pursuit requires great initiative from commanders of all echelons of command, who must not hesitate to start pursuit immediately, even when their troops are exhausted. The enemy must be given no time to pause to reorganize his forces and reconstitute his defence. The pursuit is conducted on a broad front by means of fire and movement. When making for distant objectives every effort is made to get around the enemy's flanks and effect a surprise attack in his rear. However, care must be taken that enemy attack on one's own flank does not cause deflection from the original direction.
Fast-moving troops are to be used in the pursuit. The infantry scatters the enemy and by-passes resisting enemy strongpoints, leaving their destruction to units following in the rear. Part of the artillery places concentrations at the avenues of retreat, while the remainder displaces forward in echelon, providing continuous support for the units in front. Pursuit without the necessary artillery support may lead to disaster.
Assault artillery will travel well forward with the rapidly advancing infantry, their heavy armament enabling them to crush quickly and decisively any enemy forces attempting to make a stand. Combat engineers repair damaged roads, facilitating the continuous flow of supply and troops.
Pursuit after a successful breakthrough is the ideal mission for the Panzer Division. During the advance on roads, the tanks form the point. However, through wooded areas or larger villages the Panzergrenadiers take over the point. Tanks and Panzergrenadiers stay close together so that either, according to the situation, can be committed as soon as enemy resistance is encountered.
Defence: Organization for Defence
The successful defence will break a hostile attack in front of the
Hauptkampflinie (main line of resistance) at the forward limit of the
Hauptkampffeld (battle position), or to force the enemy to abandon his attack.
The commander will determine the main battlefield and assign a general line as guide for the location of the main line of resistance, to ensure continuity of the defensive position. Lower echelon commanders fix the main line of resistance on the ground, since only on the terrain, after thorough reconnaissance, can the details of the defence be decided. However, that reconnaissance must not delay the construction of defensive positions. Organization of the defensive position includes a
Vorgeschobene Stellung (advanced position), a
Gefechtsvorposten (outpost position) and a reserve position. The width and depth of the defensive are will depend upon the terrain and the proportional strength of friendly and hostile forces.
Defence: The Advanced Position
Vorgeschobene Stellungen are organized as much as 5,000 to 7,000 meters in front of the
Hauptkampflinie, within the range of medium artillery. A position is selected which will prevent seizure by the enemy of important terrain features, provide good observation points for friendly artillery, and, if possible, deceive the enemy as to the location of the main line of resistance. Troops manning these positions attempt to make the enemy employ his forces prematurely and, if possible, in the wrong direction. The forces in a
Vorgeschobene Stellung are usually reconnaissance detachments, which include machine-gun, armoured-car, and antitank-gun units, the firepower and mobility of which make them suitable for this type of employment. In general they occupy important features, such as railroads, river crossings, cross-roads, and commanding ground. Forces in advanced positions are not expected to hold at all cost; in the face of superior enemy fire they retire along predetermined routes under cover of medium artillery.
Defence: The Outpost Position
Gefechtsvorposten are normally established 2,000 to 5,000 meters in front of the
Hauptkampflinie. When the fronts are stabilized, the outpost position is the only position forward of the main line of resistance. The location, which depends upon the terrain, is always within range of friendly light artillery.
Outpost positions are occupied in strength varying from platoons to companies, depending upon the mission, terrain, width of the sector, and the number of troops available. Often they are only weakly occupied as long as the advanced positions are in front of them. Ordinarily outposts are established by infantry units drawn from the main battle position, supported by the fire of close-support weapons such as mortars and infantry guns. Antitank guns often are attached to these outpost units to repel hostile armoured reconnaissance units. The main weapon, however, is the light machine gun which opens fire at ranges of about 1,200 meters.
Firing positions are selected to facilitate unobserved withdrawal of the outposts to the main battle position when hostile pressure becomes too strong. Several alternate positions are prepared for each weapon, and shifts are made by day and night to make it difficult for the opponent to detect and dislodge the outpost troops. Positions normally are selected at the edge of the woods, villages, hedgerows, or hills. A good field of fire is mandatory, and the organization of firing positions is simple. Numerous dummy positions are to be constructed. During the day, positions are manned by guards; at night, advanced listening posts, particularly alert at dusk and dawn, warn the troops of the enemy's approach. Small, prepared attacks with limited objectives under the protection of the outposts are utilized to interfere with the hostile preparations and secure information.
Withdrawal of the outposts is conducted so as not to hinder the fire of the main battle position. After the outposts are abandoned, they are likely to be covered by carefully registered fire of heavy weapons in order to prevent their occupation by the enemy.
Defence: The Main Line of Resistance
The
Hauptkampflinie is to be organized in depth with individual strongpoints connected to form an uninterrupted belt. The strongpoints, constructed for all-around defence, and surrounded by barbed-wire obstacles and mine belts, should contain one or more heavy weapons supplemented by machine guns, mortars, and riflemen. The smallest strongpoint is occupied by a reinforced squad. Squad strongpoints normally are incorporated into platoon strongpoints, and the latter into company strongpoints, etc.
Maximum use is to be made of reverse slopes; forward-slope positions are to be avoided as they are too easily detected by the enemy and are likely to be destroyed by mass fire. Since organization of a position in woods requires much time and labour, and strong occupation is requisite to compensate for poor observation; therefore such positions are to be avoided when time is short and labour scarce. Battle positions are to be laid out so that woods are neither in, nor directly in front or in rear of, defensive installations. When it is possible to establish a well prepared position in a woods, a position so located offers the same advantages as a reverse slope.
When it is necessary to construct defensive positions on terrain divided by a stream, bridgeheads shall be organized on the bank on the hostile side where the terrain facilitates crossings. Where the river forms a re-entrant bend into enemy-held terrain, a second position is constructed at the base of the bend. On narrow rivers and creeks, the entire main line of resistance is on the hostile side of the river, and the stream becomes the tank obstacle of the position. When the friendly side of the river consists of swampland, it is used as an obstacle, and the hostile bank is not included in the defence system.
All parts of the position shall be supplied with strong support from artillery and heavy infantry weapons. A detailed fire plan is to be prepared in advance by the infantry and coordinated with the artillery plan. Provision is made for fire in front of the forward limit of the battle position, which is partly protected by minefields and other obstacles. Alternate positions are dug so that support weapons may be shifted and fired rapidly. The mass of the artillery lays concentrated fire both close to and well in front of the main line of resistance, and is sited to cover the spaces between the effective fire zones of front-line units.
Construction of defensive positions will follow the principle of "effect before cover" in determining priorities for constructing the various installations. Combat trenches shall be dug first; then shall follow erection of infantry obstacles such as barbed-wire fences, and then construct machine-gun positions, dugouts, foxholes, and antitank positions. Clear fields of fire shall be established by careful cutting of underbrush but shall avoid cutting down trees in order to preserve concealment of the position. The underbrush is left in front of the position as far as one to three meters. Observation posts for artillery and heavy infantry weapons shall be provided. As time and resources permit the depth of the battle position shall be increased, communication trenches and emplacements for the heavy infantry weapons dug, and command posts built. Emplacements for the artillery will be prepared, antitank ditches within the battle position dug, and dummy positions built. Whenever practicable, trenches and wire obstacles are to be placed along natural terrain lines such as rows of brush or edges of fields.
Defence: Active Defence
Defence of a position relies upon heavy concentrations of fire and powerful, coordinated counterattacks by mobile reserves of all arms. The
Schwerpunktprinzip principle shall be applied in defence in reverse order, the main effort being made opposite the point where the enemy is making his attack.
Artillery is to be used to disrupt a hostile attack before it reaches the defensive positions. It is invaluable to install observation posts simultaneously in the main line of resistance, in the advanced position, and in the immediate vicinity of the gun position, thus keeping a hostile force constantly under observation and fire even when it achieves a penetration. The artillery regiment commander controls the fire as long as possible, although requests for artillery barrages may be made by unit commanders as low as platoon leaders.
When a part of the battle position is lost, the area is taken under artillery fire to annihilate enemy forces which may have penetrated it. Immediate local counterthrusts by infantry elements and support weapons near the penetration must endeavour to hurl back the enemy before he has an opportunity to establish himself. These small counterthrusts, which normally closely follow the artillery fire, preferably are directed at the flanks of the penetrations.
Should the enemy succeed in making a large penetration or breakthrough, the higher echelon commander decides whether a general counterattack should be launched to restore the position or whether the main battle position should be established farther to the rear. The counterattack is directed against the hostile flank, where possible, and is should be prepared thoroughly. Assembly area, time, objective, zone, artillery support, and employment of tanks, self-propelled artillery, assault guns, and air units are controlled by one commander.
Marches: General Principles
In order to secure the march column against enemy attacks, the column is divided into
Vorhut (Advance Guard),
Gros (Main Body) and
Nachhut (Rear Guard). The issue of orders for march and traffic control is the responsibility of the higher command. Orders for movement will be issued to the formations of fighting troops by the operations group of headquarters; those to supply services and units in the line-of-communication area will emanate from the supply and administrative group. Traffic control services are under the orders of the operations group.
On the march each division will be allotted its own road or sector of advance, marked by advance parties. General Headquarters or any other troops directed simultaneously on the same roads, are subordinated to the division for the duration of the move. When a division advances along several routes, an infantry element will normally form the head of each main body. The commander of the main body usually marches at or near the head of the main body. The motorized elements of the division, unless employed on reconnaissance or security missions, are organized into one or more motor echelons which follow the march column by bounds, or move in a column along a separate road. Before the march begins, the division signal battalion will lay a trunk telephone line as far forward as the situation permits and extends this line while the march proceeds. The leading signal unit usually marches with the support of the advance guard and establishes telephone stations at important points. In a march along several roads the trunk line normally is laid along the route of the division commander and his staff.