WesWorld

General:

Success on the battlefield lies in the offensive; while it is often necessary to resort to the defensive victory can only be won by defeating the enemy force by combination of arms and successful application of the military art.

Combat operations must be a Bewegungskrieg, that is, a war of manoeuvre. Only by tactical and operational manoeuvre can the dangers of positional warfare be avoided.

Auftragstaktik, that is mission-type controls, require that the military commander gives subordinate leaders a clearly defined goal, the forces needed to accomplish that goal and a time frame within which the goal must be reached. The subordinate leaders then implement the order independently. The subordinate leader is given, to a large extent, the planning initiative and a freedom in execution which allows a high-degree of flexibility at the operational and tactical levels of command. For the success of Auftragstaktik, it is especially important that the subordinate leaders understand the intent of the orders and are given proper guidance, and that they are trained so they can act independently. The success of the doctrine rests upon the recipient of orders understanding the intent of the issuer and acting to achieve the goal even if their actions violate other guidance or orders they have received.

All operations must be directed against the Schwerpunkt, that is the focal point, of the enemy. By concentrating all available forces upon the centre of gravity of the opponent, a decisive breakthrough can be achieve that can be exploited by follow-on forces. Once a breakthrough has been achieved pursuit must be carried out in the most aggressive manner to maintain the tempo of the attack.


Offensive Operations:

The objective of the combined arms in attack is to bring the armoured forces and the infantry into decisive action against the enemy with sufficient fire power and shock. Superiority in force and fire power, the employment of armoured forces, as well as the element of surprise are the keys of a successful combined-arms offensive action.

Flankenangriff or flank attack is considered to be the most effective form attack. The flank attack develops either from the approach march - sometimes through a turning movement - or from flank marches. It attempts to surprise the enemy and permit him no time for countermeasures. Since mobility and the deception of the enemy at other positions are required, the flank attack is most successfully mounted from a distance; the troop movements necessary for the manoeuvre can be executed in close proximity to the enemy only with unusually favourable terrain or at night. Attacks are to be launched on both flanks only when the attacking forces are forces clearly superior in numbers and firepower.

Umfassungsangriff or envelopment is a combination flank-and-frontal attack. It may be directed on either or both the flanks of the enemy, and is accompanied by a simultaneous frontal attack to fix the opponent. The deeper the envelopment goes into the flanks, the greater the danger of being enveloped oneself. It is therefore necessary to maintain strong reserves and organization of the enveloping forces in depth.

Einkreisung or encirclement, while particularly decisive, is more difficult to execute than a flank attack or envelopment. It requires extreme mobility and deception on the part of the attacking units.

Frontalangriff or frontal attack, must be made only at a point where the infantry can break through to favourable terrain in the depth of the enemy position. It strikes the enemy at his strongest point, and therefore requires superiority in all arms. The frontage of the attack must be wider that the actual area chosen for penetration, in order to tie down the enemy on the flanks of the breakthrough. Adequate reserves must be held ready to counter the employment of the reserves of the enemy force. An attack directed at one or both wings of the enemy (Flugelangriff) has a better chance of success than a central frontal attack, since only a part of the force is faced, and only one flank of the attacking force or forces is exposed to enemy fire. Bending back one wing may give an opportunity for a flank attack, or for a single or double envelopment.

Durchbruch, that is, breakthrough, is the exploitation of a successful attack on the front, wing or flank of the enemy. The penetration destroys the continuity of the hostile front. The broader the penetration, the deeper can the penetration wedge be driven. Strong reserves throw back enemy counterattacks against the flanks of the penetration. Units must be trained to exploit a penetration to the maximum so that it may develop into a complete breakthrough before hostile countermeasures can be launched on an effective scale. The deeper the attacker penetrates, the more effectively can he envelop and frustrate the attempts of the enemy to close his front again by withdrawal to the rear.


Preparation of the Attack: Reconnaissance

Operative Aufklarung, that is, operational reconnaissance, is intended to penetrate over a large area in great depth, providing the basis for strategic planning and action. This type of reconnaissance is intended to determine the location and activities of enemy forces, particularly localities of rail concentrations, forward or rearward displacements of personnel, loading or unloading areas of army elements, the construction of field or permanent fortifications, and hostile air force concentrations. This mission is carried out by tactical air force elements and by motorized elements within their scope. Motorized units employed for operational reconnaissance have only directions and objectives assigned.

Taktische Aufklarung, that is, tactical reconnaissance, is carried out in the area behind the operational reconnaissance, providing the basis for the commitment of troops. Its mission embraces identification of the organization, disposition, strength, and antiaircraft defences of the enemy; determination of his reinforcement capabilities; and terrain reconnaissance of advance sectors. Both tactical air elements and motorized reconnaissance elements are employed for tactical reconnaissance; their direction and radius of employment are based upon the results of the operational reconnaissance. Air reconnaissance units are assigned specific reconnaissance areas, the boundaries of which normally do not coincide with sectors assigned to ground units. Reconnaissance aircraft generally are employed singly.

Sectors of responsibility are assigned to ground tactical reconnaissance units. In order to make them independent or to facilitate their change of direction, units may be assigned only reconnaissance objectives. In such instances, boundary lines separate adjacent units. The width of a sector is determined by the situation, the type and strength of the reconnaissance battalion, the road net, and the terrain. In general, the width of a sector assigned to a motorized reconnaissance unit does not exceed 50 kilometres.

Gefechtsaufklarung, that is, battle reconnaissance, is begun with the opposing forces begin to deploy. All troops participating in battle carry out battle reconnaissance through patrols, artillery observation posts, observation battalions, and air reconnaissance units. The information obtained on the organization and strength of the enemy provides the basis for the conduct of the battle. The observation battalion locates enemy artillery and heavy weapons positions by sound and flash ranging and evaluated aerial photographs. The tactical air force elements assist in battle reconnaissance by observing the distribution of the enemy's forces, his artillery, bivouac and movements, reserves, tank assemblies, and any other special occurrences behind the front.

Gefechtsspahtruppen or combat patrols are employed in the immediate battle zone to test the strength of enemy outposts. If an outpost proves to be weakly held, the patrol attacks, occupies the position, and remains there until relieved by troops from the rear. If the outpost is strongly garrisoned, the patrol attempts to return with a prisoner of war.


Preparation of the Attack: Organization

The Angriffsbefehl, or attack order, contains the objective of the attack, the disposition of the unit sectors and boundaries, disposition and support missions of the artillery, location of reserves, and the time of attack. The order addresses:

(1) Estimate of the situation (disposition of hostile and friendly troops)
(2) Mission
(3) Assembly areas for the forward companies; objective; sector boundaries; orders for the continuation of combat reconnaissance
(4) Instructions for the preparation of the heavy-weapons fire support, especially for massed fire
(5) Orders to the artillery for fire preparation and coordination
(6) Assembly areas for the reserves
(7) Time of attack
(8) Instructions for rear services (medial service and supplies) and
(9) Location of command posts

The width of a sector assigned to a unit in the attack depends on the unit's mission and battle strength, on terrain conditions, on the available fire support of all arms, and on the probable strength of enemy resistance. Normally the sector assigned to a platoon is between 150 and 200 meters; a company attack sector is about 300 to 500 meters; a battalion sector is about 500 to 1,000 meters, and the divisional sector may be between 4,000 and 5,000 meters. These sectors also provide the boundaries of the other arms, especially for the artillery in support of infantry. For large units the sectors are determined from the map; for smaller units, from the terrain. These sectors extend as deep into enemy territory as the plan of battle may require. As the situation develops, changes are frequently made. Important points always lie within units' sectors, unless they are to be attacked by several units.

Fire superiority is achieved through coordination of the infantry and artillery weapons. The basis of the fire plan is the regulation of the commitment of all weapons. The fire plan includes the following:

(1) Assignment of combat missions
(2) Distribution of observation sectors and fields of fire for the infantry and the artillery
(3) An estimate of capabilities of the artillery for effective execution of the combat mission
(4) Orders for the commencement of fire and fire schedules
(5) Orders for the preparation for massed fire
(6) Instructions for ammunition supply


The Attack: Prepared Attacks

Attacks are to be made as a fully coordinated effort of all arms. Against an enemy in prepared positions with adequate antitank defences, the initial attack will be made by infantry troops with the immediate support of assault artillery. Armoured troops will follow to exploit the penetration made by the infantry. Against an enemy caught in open country without adequate antitank defences the armoured troops will make the initial attack, advancing by bounds until penetration is achieved and pursuit may begin.

Artillery support is of decisive importance for the preparation and the successful conduct of an attack. A unified command for the entire artillery controls the artillery fire as long as the infantry and tank units are fighting on the same line. When the tanks break through the enemy forward defence lines, the self-propelled artillery or any other artillery battalion designated for the support of the tank unit is placed under the command of the tank unit commander.

The mission of the artillery preparation before the attack is to destroy, or at least neutralize, the opponent's antitank defence in the area between the line of contact and the regimental reserve line. Continuous counterbattery fire prevents the enemy from shelling the tank assembly area and from breaking up the preparation of the tank attack.

The artillery has the following missions before the attack:

(1) Counterbattery fire on enemy artillery located in positions which command the ground over which the attack is to be made
(2) Concentrations on enemy tanks in assembly areas
(3) Harassing fire on all areas in which the antitank units are located or suspected
(4) Adjusting fire with high explosives on probable enemy observation posts commanding the sector to be attacked

The artillery has the following missions during the attack:

(1) Counterbattery fire
(2) Blinding enemy observation posts
(3) Engage successive lines of antitank defence as the attack progresses
(4) Screening the flanks of the attack with smoke
(5) Delaying the movement and deployment of enemy reserves, particularly tanks

This wide variety of tasks must not lead to the wholesale dispersal of effort. The main task of the artillery is at all times the destruction of the enemy's antitank weapons, tanks, and artillery.

Infantry attacks on prepared positions is made in the same sequence, that is, penetration, breakthrough and exploitation by the reserves. In the infantry attack, the first phase is a series of local attacks by Stosstruppen (assault troops) with the aim of overcoming key points in enemy defences. Assault detachments are to be composed of infantry with pioneers attached.

Assault artillery vehicles advance with the infantry, to neutralize enemy support weapons at close ranges over open sights. They are to be employed in a concentrated fashion, in conformity with the Schwerpunktprinzip (principle of concentration).


The Attack: Meeting Engagements

In the Begegnungsgefecht or meeting engagement, the advantage lies with the side which succeeds first in making effective preparation for the attack and thereby deprives the enemy of his freedom of action. When both adversaries attack immediately from march columns, the decisive factors are the initiative of the junior officers and the efficiency of the troops. The senior commander quickly coordinates the functions of the various officers, while the advance guard secures for him freedom of action and the opportunity for a speedy deployment of his troops.


The Attack: Pursuit

Pursuit begins when the enemy is no longer able to maintain his position and abandons the combat area with the bulk of his forces. The object of the pursuit is the complete annihilation of the retreating or routed enemy. Effective pursuit requires great initiative from commanders of all echelons of command, who must not hesitate to start pursuit immediately, even when their troops are exhausted. The enemy must be given no time to pause to reorganize his forces and reconstitute his defence. The pursuit is conducted on a broad front by means of fire and movement. When making for distant objectives every effort is made to get around the enemy's flanks and effect a surprise attack in his rear. However, care must be taken that enemy attack on one's own flank does not cause deflection from the original direction.

Fast-moving troops are to be used in the pursuit. The infantry scatters the enemy and by-passes resisting enemy strongpoints, leaving their destruction to units following in the rear. Part of the artillery places concentrations at the avenues of retreat, while the remainder displaces forward in echelon, providing continuous support for the units in front. Pursuit without the necessary artillery support may lead to disaster.

Assault artillery will travel well forward with the rapidly advancing infantry, their heavy armament enabling them to crush quickly and decisively any enemy forces attempting to make a stand. Combat engineers repair damaged roads, facilitating the continuous flow of supply and troops.

Pursuit after a successful breakthrough is the ideal mission for the Panzer Division. During the advance on roads, the tanks form the point. However, through wooded areas or larger villages the Panzergrenadiers take over the point. Tanks and Panzergrenadiers stay close together so that either, according to the situation, can be committed as soon as enemy resistance is encountered.


Defence: Organization for Defence

The successful defence will break a hostile attack in front of the Hauptkampflinie (main line of resistance) at the forward limit of the Hauptkampffeld (battle position), or to force the enemy to abandon his attack.

The commander will determine the main battlefield and assign a general line as guide for the location of the main line of resistance, to ensure continuity of the defensive position. Lower echelon commanders fix the main line of resistance on the ground, since only on the terrain, after thorough reconnaissance, can the details of the defence be decided. However, that reconnaissance must not delay the construction of defensive positions. Organization of the defensive position includes a Vorgeschobene Stellung (advanced position), a Gefechtsvorposten (outpost position) and a reserve position. The width and depth of the defensive are will depend upon the terrain and the proportional strength of friendly and hostile forces.


Defence: The Advanced Position

Vorgeschobene Stellungen are organized as much as 5,000 to 7,000 meters in front of the Hauptkampflinie, within the range of medium artillery. A position is selected which will prevent seizure by the enemy of important terrain features, provide good observation points for friendly artillery, and, if possible, deceive the enemy as to the location of the main line of resistance. Troops manning these positions attempt to make the enemy employ his forces prematurely and, if possible, in the wrong direction. The forces in a Vorgeschobene Stellung are usually reconnaissance detachments, which include machine-gun, armoured-car, and antitank-gun units, the firepower and mobility of which make them suitable for this type of employment. In general they occupy important features, such as railroads, river crossings, cross-roads, and commanding ground. Forces in advanced positions are not expected to hold at all cost; in the face of superior enemy fire they retire along predetermined routes under cover of medium artillery.

Defence: The Outpost Position

Gefechtsvorposten are normally established 2,000 to 5,000 meters in front of the Hauptkampflinie. When the fronts are stabilized, the outpost position is the only position forward of the main line of resistance. The location, which depends upon the terrain, is always within range of friendly light artillery.

Outpost positions are occupied in strength varying from platoons to companies, depending upon the mission, terrain, width of the sector, and the number of troops available. Often they are only weakly occupied as long as the advanced positions are in front of them. Ordinarily outposts are established by infantry units drawn from the main battle position, supported by the fire of close-support weapons such as mortars and infantry guns. Antitank guns often are attached to these outpost units to repel hostile armoured reconnaissance units. The main weapon, however, is the light machine gun which opens fire at ranges of about 1,200 meters.

Firing positions are selected to facilitate unobserved withdrawal of the outposts to the main battle position when hostile pressure becomes too strong. Several alternate positions are prepared for each weapon, and shifts are made by day and night to make it difficult for the opponent to detect and dislodge the outpost troops. Positions normally are selected at the edge of the woods, villages, hedgerows, or hills. A good field of fire is mandatory, and the organization of firing positions is simple. Numerous dummy positions are to be constructed. During the day, positions are manned by guards; at night, advanced listening posts, particularly alert at dusk and dawn, warn the troops of the enemy's approach. Small, prepared attacks with limited objectives under the protection of the outposts are utilized to interfere with the hostile preparations and secure information.

Withdrawal of the outposts is conducted so as not to hinder the fire of the main battle position. After the outposts are abandoned, they are likely to be covered by carefully registered fire of heavy weapons in order to prevent their occupation by the enemy.


Defence: The Main Line of Resistance

The Hauptkampflinie is to be organized in depth with individual strongpoints connected to form an uninterrupted belt. The strongpoints, constructed for all-around defence, and surrounded by barbed-wire obstacles and mine belts, should contain one or more heavy weapons supplemented by machine guns, mortars, and riflemen. The smallest strongpoint is occupied by a reinforced squad. Squad strongpoints normally are incorporated into platoon strongpoints, and the latter into company strongpoints, etc.

Maximum use is to be made of reverse slopes; forward-slope positions are to be avoided as they are too easily detected by the enemy and are likely to be destroyed by mass fire. Since organization of a position in woods requires much time and labour, and strong occupation is requisite to compensate for poor observation; therefore such positions are to be avoided when time is short and labour scarce. Battle positions are to be laid out so that woods are neither in, nor directly in front or in rear of, defensive installations. When it is possible to establish a well prepared position in a woods, a position so located offers the same advantages as a reverse slope.

When it is necessary to construct defensive positions on terrain divided by a stream, bridgeheads shall be organized on the bank on the hostile side where the terrain facilitates crossings. Where the river forms a re-entrant bend into enemy-held terrain, a second position is constructed at the base of the bend. On narrow rivers and creeks, the entire main line of resistance is on the hostile side of the river, and the stream becomes the tank obstacle of the position. When the friendly side of the river consists of swampland, it is used as an obstacle, and the hostile bank is not included in the defence system.

All parts of the position shall be supplied with strong support from artillery and heavy infantry weapons. A detailed fire plan is to be prepared in advance by the infantry and coordinated with the artillery plan. Provision is made for fire in front of the forward limit of the battle position, which is partly protected by minefields and other obstacles. Alternate positions are dug so that support weapons may be shifted and fired rapidly. The mass of the artillery lays concentrated fire both close to and well in front of the main line of resistance, and is sited to cover the spaces between the effective fire zones of front-line units.

Construction of defensive positions will follow the principle of "effect before cover" in determining priorities for constructing the various installations. Combat trenches shall be dug first; then shall follow erection of infantry obstacles such as barbed-wire fences, and then construct machine-gun positions, dugouts, foxholes, and antitank positions. Clear fields of fire shall be established by careful cutting of underbrush but shall avoid cutting down trees in order to preserve concealment of the position. The underbrush is left in front of the position as far as one to three meters. Observation posts for artillery and heavy infantry weapons shall be provided. As time and resources permit the depth of the battle position shall be increased, communication trenches and emplacements for the heavy infantry weapons dug, and command posts built. Emplacements for the artillery will be prepared, antitank ditches within the battle position dug, and dummy positions built. Whenever practicable, trenches and wire obstacles are to be placed along natural terrain lines such as rows of brush or edges of fields.


Defence: Active Defence

Defence of a position relies upon heavy concentrations of fire and powerful, coordinated counterattacks by mobile reserves of all arms. The Schwerpunktprinzip principle shall be applied in defence in reverse order, the main effort being made opposite the point where the enemy is making his attack.

Artillery is to be used to disrupt a hostile attack before it reaches the defensive positions. It is invaluable to install observation posts simultaneously in the main line of resistance, in the advanced position, and in the immediate vicinity of the gun position, thus keeping a hostile force constantly under observation and fire even when it achieves a penetration. The artillery regiment commander controls the fire as long as possible, although requests for artillery barrages may be made by unit commanders as low as platoon leaders.

When a part of the battle position is lost, the area is taken under artillery fire to annihilate enemy forces which may have penetrated it. Immediate local counterthrusts by infantry elements and support weapons near the penetration must endeavour to hurl back the enemy before he has an opportunity to establish himself. These small counterthrusts, which normally closely follow the artillery fire, preferably are directed at the flanks of the penetrations.

Should the enemy succeed in making a large penetration or breakthrough, the higher echelon commander decides whether a general counterattack should be launched to restore the position or whether the main battle position should be established farther to the rear. The counterattack is directed against the hostile flank, where possible, and is should be prepared thoroughly. Assembly area, time, objective, zone, artillery support, and employment of tanks, self-propelled artillery, assault guns, and air units are controlled by one commander.


Marches: General Principles

In order to secure the march column against enemy attacks, the column is divided into Vorhut (Advance Guard), Gros (Main Body) and Nachhut (Rear Guard. The issue of orders for march and traffic control is the responsibility of the higher command. Orders for movement will be issued to the formations of fighting troops by the operations group of headquarters; those to supply services and units in the line-of-communication area will emanate from the supply and administrative group. Traffic control services are under the orders of the operations group.

On the march each division will be allotted its own road or sector of advance, marked by advance parties. General Headquarters or any other troops directed simultaneously on the same roads, are subordinated to the division for the duration of the move. When a division advances along several routes, an infantry element will normally form the head of each main body. The commander of the main body usually marches at or near the head of the main body. The motorized elements of the division, unless employed on reconnaissance or security missions, are organized into one or more motor echelons which follow the march column by bounds, or move in a column along a separate road. Before the march begins, the division signal battalion will lay a trunk telephone line as far forward as the situation permits and extends this line while the march proceeds. The leading signal unit usually marches with the support of the advance guard and establishes telephone stations at important points. In a march along several roads the trunk line normally is laid along the route of the division commander and his staff.


Retrograde Movements: Withdrawal from Action

Abbrechen des Gefechts, that is, the breaking off of an engagement, is occasioned by one of the reasons: the engagement has served its purpose; when conditions require the employment of the troops, or part of them on another front; when a continuation of the battle gives no promise of success; or when defeat is imminent.

When an attack exhausts itself without attaining its objective, the defensive shall be assumed as the first step in withdrawing from action. If the defence must be continued in a rearward position, the breaking of contact, the retirement, and the resumption of the defence are to be carefully planned beforehand. Positions in the rear are prepared for the reception of the troops, particularly if they have engaged in heavy fighting. The retirement is made in conjunction with that of adjacent units, and stress is placed on maintaining the cohesiveness of the retiring forces.


Retrograde Movements: Retreat

Ruckzug is a forced retirement which is to be ordered only when all possibilities for success are exhausted. The objective is to place enough distance between friendly and hostile forces to enable the former to conduct an orderly withdrawal and to occupy new positions in the rear.

In such circumstances covering forces shall be organized from troops in closest contact with the enemy - either whole tactical units or elements from several. These forces will attempt to make the enemy believe that the position is still fully occupied. Pioneers will prepare additional obstacles and minefield forward of and within the positions to be held. A portion of the available artillery and heavy infantry weapons will support the covering forces. They will maintain as long as possible their former fire activity to deceive the enemy, even when fulfilment of their mission means the loss of individual guns. Orders will specify whether the covering forces are to remain in contact with the hostile forces until they begin to advance, or to follow the main body after a specified interval.

As the distance from the enemy increases, the retiring troops will form march columns. Where possible, retirement takes place along two parallel routes. The freshest troops available are used as rear guards. Since the rear guard cannot expect support from the retreating main body, it must be relatively strong. Generally the divisional field artillery retires with the main body, none being assigned to the rear guard. Self-propelled and heavy infantry-support guns, and even howitzers, are frequently attached to the rear guard. Tanks also may be assigned. A typical rear guard for each route in a division retirement is one infantry battalion to which are attached elements of the reconnaissance unit, to protect the flanks, and of the pioneer unit to prepare demolitions.

Rear guards withdraw by bounds to selected but not prepared positions. The extent to which positions eventually can be prepared depends on the proximity of the pursuing forces, the length of time each particular position is likely to be held, and the decision of the individual company and platoon commanders. During each stage of the retreat, the commander of the rear company may order a withdrawal to the main rear guard position, but withdrawal from each main rear guard position is ordered by the commander of the main body.


Retrograde Movements: Delaying Actions

A distinction is to be made between Hinhaltendes Gefecht, that is, delaying engagements, and Hinhaltender Widerstand or delaying actions. A delaying engagement is primarily the general plan of the higher commander for holding back the enemy. Delaying actions are the measures taken by lower units to carry out the higher commander's plan.

The purpose of delaying actions is to enable the main force to disengage itself from battle, retire in order, and establish a new defensive position. Delaying actions therefore seek to deceive the enemy as to the strength, dispositions, and intentions of friendly forces and to prevent close pursuit of the main forces by the enemy. These measures are accomplished by rear guards, special battle groups, and strongpoints, all of which are characterized by high automatic fire power, mobility, and economy in numerical strength.

Delaying actions are organized not in a main defensive belt, but on Widerstandslinien or lines of resistance. The distance between such lines is to be great enough to prevent the enemy from engaging two of them from the same artillery position. The foe is to be compelled to displace and move up his artillery to engage each line. These lines of resistance are normally established along forward slopes to facilitate disengagement and withdrawal under cover. The delaying actions are fought forward of the lines of resistance with mobile forces. Furthermore, battle outposts are organized forward of each line. The main delaying weapons are machine guns, mortars, and self-propelled weapons. Contact with the enemy is to be maintained during withdrawal and delaying actions, and the size, composition, direction and intention of the attacking enemy forces are to be observed at all times.

During a delaying action wide sectors are to be covered by artillery units widely deployed and by widely distributed infantry-support weapons. The defence is then further organized by establishing strongpoints manned by small groups. The positions from which delaying actions are fought are characterized by very slight depth.

In leaving a line of resistance covering forces will attempt to disengage by night. If that is not possible, their actions are to be governed by the following principle: the enemy is not allowed to come closer to them than they are from their next line of resistance. The troops must be able to reach the new position before the enemy reaches the old one, or their losses will be excessive. The troops therefore do not retire in the face of enemy patrols. If it can be ascertained that the enemy is preparing for a massed attack, the covering forces will make a timely withdrawal to avoid exposing the troops to enemy artillery concentrations. Advance elements will employ smoke to enable them to make a getaway in a critical situation. Riflemen will cover the disengagement of heavy weapons, which move back by bounds. Every opportunity is to be taken to make limited counterattacks in order to inflict casualties on an enemy who advances recklessly. Fire is to be opened at extreme ranges on an enemy advancing for a major attack. Enemy reconnaissance forces are allowed to approach, however, and then every effort is made to destroy them.

Counterattacks on a large scale are to be avoided, except when the enemy threatens to penetrate the line of resistance. When that occurs, a counterattack by the main forces of the rear guard will be mounted to restore the situation in order that the program of staged withdrawal may be continued. Local counterattacks are to be made for the protection or retention of some feature essential to the safe conduct of the main withdrawal, or to gain time for the preparation of the line of resistance or phase line.

The Zwischenfeld, or intermediate area, is that ground that lies between successive lines of resistance. Explicit orders are to be given as to whether the intermediate area is to be covered in one bound or is to be fought over. The latter necessity arises especially when the next line of resistance has not been fully prepared and time must be gained. Detachments must reach the line of resistance early enough to insure that all the main positions are occupied in time.

The supply of ammunition is to be carefully organized. A great deal of ammunition is required for delaying actions because a few weapons on a broad front must do as much as or even more than the normal number of guns in a defensive position. Every commander is to maintain a supply of ammunition for emergencies.


Retrograde Movements: Strongpoints in Delaying Actions

Strongpoints are to be used to cover the resistance or phase lines of the rear guard. Just as it is a function of the rear guards to prevent a pursuing force from making contact with the main body while it is on the move, so it is the function of strongpoints to prevent the penetration of resistance or phase lines until the main body has withdrawn to its next position. Strongpoints are to be organized on the hedgehog principle. Provision is made for all-around fire, but the strongpoints are not necessarily mutually self-supporting. They are normally located on commanding features. Weapons are not to be dug in, and positions are to be frequently changed. Approaches to strongpoints which cannot be covered by fire are to be mined.


Retrograde Movements: Demolitions

To prevent the pursuing enemy columns from approaching close enough to engage rear guard elements it is necessary to continually employ demolitions and obstacles of all kinds. Culverts and bridges are to be completely destroyed. Roads and all natural detours are mined, cratered, or blocked by felled trees; mines often are laid for thirty meters around the edge of the obstacle. Frequently rear parties are committed to a delaying engagement in order to cover the preparation of demolitions immediately behind them. During static periods in the general withdrawal pioneer units prepare demolitions in the rear. After the withdrawal these demolitions are to be covered by fire as long as possible.